Metabolic Engineering of Saccharomyces cerevisiae for Enhanced Steroid Biosynthesis: Advances, Strategies, and Industrial Implications

Abstract

Saccharomyces cerevisiae, an extensively studied model yeast has received significant attention largely due to its well-characterised genomic materials, ease of genetic manipulation, and usefulness in the production of steroidal compounds.. Steroids are essential molecules used extensively in pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, and agricultural industries. However, chemical synthesis and extraction techniques for steroids are often inefficient and environmentally taxing. Advances in metabolic engineering and synthetic biology have facilitated the reprogramming of Saccharomyces cerevisiae to enhance the biosynthesis of both steroid precursors and specific steroid hormones. This review aimed to explore and consolidate advances in the metabolic engineering of S. cerevisiae for enhanced steroid synthesis. The content of this article also provides an in-depth review that focuses on enzyme overexpression, gene knockouts, heterologous pathway integration, and utilisation of synthetic biology devices such as CRISPR-Cas9. Metabolic flux analysis and omics integration were also assessed for their role in improving biosynthetic efficiency. In conclusion, S. cerevisiae is a promising biofactory for steroid production; however, to achieve commercial viability, further work on strain optimisation, process scale-up, and regulatory compliance will be required. Future research should focus on refining synthetic pathways, reducing metabolic burdens, and aligning biotechnological innovations with industrial and environmental standards.