Prevalence, Species Composition, and Risk Factors of Ectoparasite Infestations in Small Ruminants in Maiduguri, Borno State, Nigeria

Abstract

This present study investigated the prevalence, species composition, and risk factors associated with ectoparasite infestations in small ruminants in Maiduguri, Nigeria. A cross-sectional survey of 200 sheep and goats was conducted over 12 months (October 2024–September 2025) using multistage sampling across household and market systems. Standard clinical examination and parasitological techniques were employed for ectoparasite collection and identification. The overall prevalence of ectoparasite infestation was 62.0% (124/200; 95% CI: 55.1–68.4). Goats (68.0%) exhibited a higher infestation rate than sheep (56.0%), although the difference was not statistically significant (p > 0.05). Animals sourced from markets showed significantly higher infestation compared to those from households (p < 0.05), highlighting the role of livestock aggregation in parasite transmission. Ticks were the predominant ectoparasites, with Rhipicephalus spp. (40.3%) being the most prevalent, followed by Amblyomma variegatum (19.4%) and Hyalomma spp. (11.3%). Lice (Linognathus spp. and Damalinia spp.), fleas (Ctenocephalides spp.), and mites, particularly Sarcoptes scabiei, were also identified at moderate levels, while mixed infestations occurred in 9.7% of animals. Infestation burden was strongly associated with poor body condition and intensive (confined) management systems, whereas sex had no significant influence. Adults showed higher tick burdens, while some lice and mites were more frequent in younger animals. The findings demonstrate a high burden and diverse composition of ectoparasites driven by management practices, host condition, and animal movement. Targeted control strategies integrating improved husbandry, biosecurity, and routine parasite management are essential to reduce production losses and zoonotic risks in the region.